Contents Introduction Theoretical part Practical part Conclusion
Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Bibliography Introduction.
Language is the chief means by which the human personality
expresses itself and fulfills its basic need for social interaction
with other persons. The aim of the foreign language is primary
schools is to develop pupils` skills and understanding English
speech and participating in conversation based on the topics
covered.
Robert Lado wrote that language functions owing to the language
skills. A person who knows a language perfectly uses a thousand and
one grammar lexical, phonetic rules when he is speaking. Language
skills help us to choose different words and models in our
speech.
In my diploma paper I examine the forming of grammar skills.
Grammar is known to be an important component of the language as a
system. Communicative skills without regular using grammar are
limited.
It is clear that the term “grammar” has meant various things at
various times and sometimes several things at one time. This
plurality of meaning is characteristic of the present time and is
the source of confusions in the discussion of grammar as part of
the education of children. There have been taking place violent
disputes on the subject of teaching grammar at school. The ability
to talk about the grammar of a language, to recite its rules, is
also very different from ability to speak and understand a language
or to read and write it. Those who can use a language are often
unable to recite its rules, and those who can recite its rules can
be unable to use it. Nowadays we can hear the following opinions
among teachers of foreign language: One teacher says, “ I do not
favor teaching any grammar before the fifth grade, and not much
then, ” another is likely to reply, “But if you do not, how will
your students learn to capitalize correctly, to punctuate
sentences, or to spell accurately? ” Another teacher remarks,
“If you teach no grammar, how can you expect to have correct usage
in speech and writing? ”
In the elementary grades the major emphasis will be upon the actual
use, rather than upon knowledge of the language itself and
attention to restrictive rules. Grammar of the analytical and
structural sort will have little place or no place in the
elementary grades, but the oral and written conventions of English,
those which function in actual speaking and writing, will be of
chief concern.
Grammar organizes the vocabulary and as a result we have sense
units. There is a system of stereotypes, which organizes words into
sentences. But what skill does grammar develop?
First of all it gives the ability to make up sentences correctly,
to reproduce the textadequately. (the development of practical
skills and habits) The knowledge of the specific grammar structure
helps pupils point out the differences between the mother tongue
and the target language. The knowledge of grammar develops
abilities to abstract systematize plural facts.
Examining the problem of grammar skills we must acquire how they
are defined in literature. We must differentiate their kinds,
features, and the conditions under which they are formed, the steps
of forming grammar skills, and the grammar minimum for the primary
school.
Learning grammar and forming grammar skills are important tasks of
the subject “Foreign language” at the primary school. It is
necessary for children not to make grammar mistakes. Roberto Lado
wrote that a mistake is the wrong skill the aim of my diploma paper
is to prevent children from making grammar mistakes, i. e. to form
grammar skills. I think that the best way to form grammar skills is
to use a lot of training exercises and individual approach in
teaching grammar. The Importance of Grammar in Learning a Foreign
Language.
To judge by the way some people speak, there is no place for
grammar in the language course nowadays; yet it is, in reality, as
important as it ever was exercise of correct grammar, if he is to
attain any skill of effective use of the language, but he need not
know consciously formulated rules to account to him for that he
does unconsciously correctly.
In order to understand a language and to express oneself correctly
one must assimilate the grammar mechanism of the language studied.
Indeed, one may know all the words in a sentence and yet fail to
understand it, if one does not see the relation between the words
in the given sentence. And vice versa, a sentence may contain one,
two, and more in known words but if one has a good knowledge of the
structure of the language one can easily guess the meaning of these
words or at least find them in a dictionary.
No speaking is possible without the knowledge of grammar, without
the forming of a grammar mechanism.
If learner has acquired such a mechanism, he can produce correct
sentences in a foreign language. Paul Roberts writes: “ Grammar is
something that produces the sentences of a language. By something
we mean a speaker of English. If you speak English natively, you
have built into you rules of English grammar. In a sense, you are
an English grammar. You possess, as an essential part of your
being, a very complicated apparatus which enables you to produce
infinitely many sentences, all English ones, including many that
you have never specifically learned. Furthermore by applying you
rule you can easily tell whether a sentence that you hear a
grammatical English sentence or not. ” *1 A command of English as
is envisaged by the school syllabus cannot be ensured without the
study of grammar . Pupils need grammar to be able to aud, speak,
read, and write in the target language. A Brief Review Of The Major
Methods Of Foreign Language Teaching.
The grammatical systems of Russian and English are fundamentally
different. English is an analytical language, in which grammatical
meaning in largely expressed through the use of additional words
and by changes in word order. Russian is a synthetic language, in
which the majority of grammatical forms are created through changes
in the structure of words, by means of a developed system of
prefixes, suffixes and ending. ( p. 121,
Brown C. and Jule “Teaching the spoken language”, Cambridge, 1983)
No one knows exactly how people learn languages although a great
deal of research has been done into the subject.
Many methods have been proposed for the teaching of foreign
language. And they have met with varying degrees of success and
failure.
We should know that the method by which children are taught must
have some effect on their motivation. If they find it deadly boring
they will probably become de-motivated, whereas if they have
confidence in the method they will find it motivating. Child
learners differ from adult learners in many ways. Children are
curious, their attention is of a shorter duration, they are quite
differently motivated in, their interests are less specialized.
They need frequent of activity; they need activities which are
exciting and stimulating their curiosity; they need to be involved
in something active. We shall examine such methods as “The Grammar
–Translation Method”, ”The Direct Method”, “The Audio-lingual
Method”. And we pay attention to the teaching grammar of the
foreign language. We shall comment those methods, which have had a
long history. The Grammar Translation method will be discussed.
This method was widely used in teaching the classics, namely Latin,
and it was transferred to the teaching of modern languages when
they were introduced into schools We list the major characteristics
of Grammar Translation.
The grammar-translation method is largely discredited today. With
greater interest in modern languages for communication the
inadequacy of grammar-translation methods became evident. The
Direct Method.
The Direct Method appeared as a reaction against the
grammar-translation method.
There was a movement in Europe that emphasized language learning by
direct contact with the foreign language in meaningful situations.
This movement resulted in various individual methods with various
names, such as new method, natural method, and even oral method,
but they can all be referred to as direct methods or the direct
method. In addition to emphasizing direct contact with the foreign
language, the direct method usually deemphasized or eliminated
translation and the memorization of conjugations, declensions, and
rules, and in some cases it introduced phonetics and phonetic
transcription. The direct method assumed that learning a foreign
language is the same as learning the mother tongue, that is, that
exposing the student directly to the foreign language impresses it
perfectly upon his mind. This is true only up to a point, since the
psychology of learning a second language differs from that of
learning the first. The child is forced to learn the first language
because he has no other effective way to express his wants. In
learning a second language this compulsion is largely missing,
since the student knows that he can communicate through his native
language when necessary. The basic premise of Direct Method was
that second language learning should be more like first language
learning: lots of active oral interaction, spontaneous use of the
language, no translation between first and second languages, and
little or no analysis of grammatical rules. We can summarize the
principles of the Direct Method:
The Direct Method enjoyed considerable popularity through the end
of nineteenth century and well into this one. Now we shall discuss
“The Audiolingual Method”.
The Audiolingual Method (It is also called Mimicry-memorization
method) was the method developed in the Intensive Language Program.
It was successful because of high motivation, intensive practice,
small classes, and good models, in addition to linguistically
sophisticated descriptions of the foreign language and its
grammar.
Grammar is taught essentially as follows: Some basic sentences are
memorized by imitation. Their meaning is given in normal
expressions in the native language, and the students are not
expected to translate word for word. When the basic sentences have
been overlearned (completely memorized so that the student can
rattle them off without effort), the student reads fairly extensive
descriptive grammar statements in his native language, with
examples in the target language and native language equivalents. He
then listens to further conversational sentences for practice in
listening . Finally, practices the dialogues using the basic
sentences and combinations of their parts. When he can, he varies
the dialogues within the material hr has already learned. The
characteristics of ALM may be summed up in the following list:
Grammar explanations as used in the major methods.
We shall briefly review the treatment of grammatical explanations
by some of the major methods. This is not meant to be an exhaustive
study of all available methods; rather it is an attempt to show the
variety of ways in which different methods deal with grammar
explanations and may help teachers in evaluating available
materials.
Grammar translation is associated with formal rule statement.
Learning proceeds, deductively, and the rule is generally stated by
the teacher, in a textbook, or both. Traditional abstract
grammatical terminology is used. Drills include translation into
native language.
The direct method is characterized by meaningful practice and
exclusion of the mother tongue. This method has had many
interpretations, some of which include an analysis of structure,
but generally without the use of abstract grammatical terminology.
The audio-lingual method stresses an inductive presentation with
extensive pattern practice. Writing is discouraged in the early
stages of learning a structure. Here again, there has bee
considerable variation in the realization of this approach. In some
cases, no grammatical explanation of any kind is offered. In other,
the teacher might focus on a particular structure by isolating an
example on the board, or through contrast. When grammatical
explanation is offered it is usually done at the end of the lesson
as a summary of behavior (Politzer, 1965), or in later versions of
this method the rule might be stated in the middle of the lesson
and followed by additional drills. Conscious grammar explanation
Isolation of (rule of structure) Deductive or Inductive
presentation The “explainer” Language type used for explanation
Oral or written explanation Grammar-translation Yes Yes Deductive
Book and/or teacher Abstract Written Direct method Yes or no Yes
Inductive (if at all) Teacher (when done) Non-abstract Oral-written
Audio-lingual Yes or no Yes Inductive Teacher Example or
non-abstract Oral-written
Each method is realized in techniques. By a technique we mean an
individual way in doing something, in gaining a certain goal in
teaching learning process. The method and techniques the teacher
should use in teaching children of the primary school is the direct
method, and various techniques which can develop pupils` listening
comprehension and speaking. Pupils are given various exercises,
connected with the situational use of words and sentence patterns.
Introduction.
Language is the chief means by which the human personality
expresses itself and fulfills its basic need for social interaction
with other persons. The aim of the foreign language is primary
schools is to develop pupils` skills and understanding English
speech and participating in conversation based on the topics
covered.
Robert Lado wrote that language functions owing to the language
skills. A person who knows a language perfectly uses a thousand and
one grammar lexical, phonetic rules when he is speaking. Language
skills help us to choose different words and models in our
speech.
In my diploma paper I examine the forming of grammar skills.
Grammar is known to be an important component of the language as a
system. Communicative skills without regular using grammar are
limited.
It is clear that the term “grammar” has meant various things at
various times and sometimes several things at one time. This
plurality of meaning is characteristic of the present time and is
the source of confusions in the discussion of grammar as part of
the education of children. There have been taking place violent
disputes on the subject of teaching grammar at school. The ability
to talk about the grammar of a language, to recite its rules, is
also very different from ability to speak and understand a language
or to read and write it. Those who can use a language are often
unable to recite its rules, and those who can recite its rules can
be unable to use it. Nowadays we can hear the following opinions
among teachers of foreign language: One teacher says, “ I do not
favor teaching any grammar before the fifth grade, and not much
then, ” another is likely to reply, “But if you do not, how will
your students learn to capitalize correctly, to punctuate
sentences, or to spell accurately? ” Another teacher remarks,
“If you teach no grammar, how can you expect to have correct usage
in speech and writing? ”
In the elementary grades the major emphasis will be upon the actual
use, rather than upon knowledge of the language itself and
attention to restrictive rules. Grammar of the analytical and
structural sort will have little place or no place in the
elementary grades, but the oral and written conventions of English,
those which function in actual speaking and writing, will be of
chief concern.
Grammar organizes the vocabulary and as a result we have sense
units. There is a system of stereotypes, which organizes words into
sentences. But what skill does grammar develop?
First of all it gives the ability to make up sentences correctly,
to reproduce the textadequately. (the development of practical
skills and habits) The knowledge of the specific grammar structure
helps pupils point out the differences between the mother tongue
and the target language. The knowledge of grammar develops
abilities to abstract systematize plural facts.
Examining the problem of grammar skills we must acquire how they
are defined in literature. We must differentiate their kinds,
features, and the conditions under which they are formed, the steps
of forming grammar skills, and the grammar minimum for the primary
school.
Learning grammar and forming grammar skills are important tasks of
the subject “Foreign language” at the primary school. It is
necessary for children not to make grammar mistakes. Roberto Lado
wrote that a mistake is the wrong skill the aim of my diploma paper
is to prevent children from making grammar mistakes, i. e. to form
grammar skills. I think that the best way to form grammar skills is
to use a lot of training exercises and individual approach in
teaching grammar. The Importance of Grammar in Learning a Foreign
Language.
To judge by the way some people speak, there is no place for
grammar in the language course nowadays; yet it is, in reality, as
important as it ever was exercise of correct grammar, if he is to
attain any skill of effective use of the language, but he need not
know consciously formulated rules to account to him for that he
does unconsciously correctly.
In order to understand a language and to express oneself correctly
one must assimilate the grammar mechanism of the language studied.
Indeed, one may know all the words in a sentence and yet fail to
understand it, if one does not see the relation between the words
in the given sentence. And vice versa, a sentence may contain one,
two, and more in known words but if one has a good knowledge of the
structure of the language one can easily guess the meaning of these
words or at least find them in a dictionary.
No speaking is possible without the knowledge of grammar, without
the forming of a grammar mechanism.
If learner has acquired such a mechanism, he can produce correct
sentences in a foreign language. Paul Roberts writes: “ Grammar is
something that produces the sentences of a language. By something
we mean a speaker of English. If you speak English natively, you
have built into you rules of English grammar. In a sense, you are
an English grammar. You possess, as an essential part of your
being, a very complicated apparatus which enables you to produce
infinitely many sentences, all English ones, including many that
you have never specifically learned. Furthermore by applying you
rule you can easily tell whether a sentence that you hear a
grammatical English sentence or not. ” *1 A command of English as
is envisaged by the school syllabus cannot be ensured without the
study of grammar . Pupils need grammar to be able to aud, speak,
read, and write in the target language. A Brief Review Of The Major
Methods Of Foreign Language Teaching.
The grammatical systems of Russian and English are fundamentally
different. English is an analytical language, in which grammatical
meaning in largely expressed through the use of additional words
and by changes in word order. Russian is a synthetic language, in
which the majority of grammatical forms are created through changes
in the structure of words, by means of a developed system of
prefixes, suffixes and ending. ( p. 121,
Brown C. and Jule “Teaching the spoken language”, Cambridge, 1983)
No one knows exactly how people learn languages although a great
deal of research has been done into the subject.
Many methods have been proposed for the teaching of foreign
language. And they have met with varying degrees of success and
failure.
We should know that the method by which children are taught must
have some effect on their motivation. If they find it deadly boring
they will probably become de-motivated, whereas if they have
confidence in the method they will find it motivating. Child
learners differ from adult learners in many ways. Children are
curious, their attention is of a shorter duration, they are quite
differently motivated in, their interests are less specialized.
They need frequent of activity; they need activities which are
exciting and stimulating their curiosity; they need to be involved
in something active. We shall examine such methods as “The Grammar
–Translation Method”, ”The Direct Method”, “The Audio-lingual
Method”. And we pay attention to the teaching grammar of the
foreign language. We shall comment those methods, which have had a
long history. The Grammar Translation method will be discussed.
This method was widely used in teaching the classics, namely Latin,
and it was transferred to the teaching of modern languages when
they were introduced into schools We list the major characteristics
of Grammar Translation.
The grammar-translation method is largely discredited today. With
greater interest in modern languages for communication the
inadequacy of grammar-translation methods became evident. The
Direct Method.
The Direct Method appeared as a reaction against the
grammar-translation method.
There was a movement in Europe that emphasized language learning by
direct contact with the foreign language in meaningful situations.
This movement resulted in various individual methods with various
names, such as new method, natural method, and even oral method,
but they can all be referred to as direct methods or the direct
method. In addition to emphasizing direct contact with the foreign
language, the direct method usually deemphasized or eliminated
translation and the memorization of conjugations, declensions, and
rules, and in some cases it introduced phonetics and phonetic
transcription. The direct method assumed that learning a foreign
language is the same as learning the mother tongue, that is, that
exposing the student directly to the foreign language impresses it
perfectly upon his mind. This is true only up to a point, since the
psychology of learning a second language differs from that of
learning the first. The child is forced to learn the first language
because he has no other effective way to express his wants. In
learning a second language this compulsion is largely missing,
since the student knows that he can communicate through his native
language when necessary. The basic premise of Direct Method was
that second language learning should be more like first language
learning: lots of active oral interaction, spontaneous use of the
language, no translation between first and second languages, and
little or no analysis of grammatical rules. We can summarize the
principles of the Direct Method:
The Direct Method enjoyed considerable popularity through the end
of nineteenth century and well into this one. Now we shall discuss
“The Audiolingual Method”.
The Audiolingual Method (It is also called Mimicry-memorization
method) was the method developed in the Intensive Language Program.
It was successful because of high motivation, intensive practice,
small classes, and good models, in addition to linguistically
sophisticated descriptions of the foreign language and its
grammar.
Grammar is taught essentially as follows: Some basic sentences are
memorized by imitation. Their meaning is given in normal
expressions in the native language, and the students are not
expected to translate word for word. When the basic sentences have
been overlearned (completely memorized so that the student can
rattle them off without effort), the student reads fairly extensive
descriptive grammar statements in his native language, with
examples in the target language and native language equivalents. He
then listens to further conversational sentences for practice in
listening . Finally, practices the dialogues using the basic
sentences and combinations of their parts. When he can, he varies
the dialogues within the material hr has already learned. The
characteristics of ALM may be summed up in the following list:
Grammar explanations as used in the major methods.
We shall briefly review the treatment of grammatical explanations
by some of the major methods. This is not meant to be an exhaustive
study of all available methods; rather it is an attempt to show the
variety of ways in which different methods deal with grammar
explanations and may help teachers in evaluating available
materials.
Grammar translation is associated with formal rule statement.
Learning proceeds, deductively, and the rule is generally stated by
the teacher, in a textbook, or both. Traditional abstract
grammatical terminology is used. Drills include translation into
native language.
The direct method is characterized by meaningful practice and
exclusion of the mother tongue. This method has had many
interpretations, some of which include an analysis of structure,
but generally without the use of abstract grammatical terminology.
The audio-lingual method stresses an inductive presentation with
extensive pattern practice. Writing is discouraged in the early
stages of learning a structure. Here again, there has bee
considerable variation in the realization of this approach. In some
cases, no grammatical explanation of any kind is offered. In other,
the teacher might focus on a particular structure by isolating an
example on the board, or through contrast. When grammatical
explanation is offered it is usually done at the end of the lesson
as a summary of behavior (Politzer, 1965), or in later versions of
this method the rule might be stated in the middle of the lesson
and followed by additional drills. Conscious grammar explanation
Isolation of (rule of structure) Deductive or Inductive
presentation The “explainer” Language type used for explanation
Oral or written explanation Grammar-translation Yes Yes Deductive
Book and/or teacher Abstract Written Direct method Yes or no Yes
Inductive (if at all) Teacher (when done) Non-abstract Oral-written
Audio-lingual Yes or no Yes Inductive Teacher Example or
non-abstract Oral-written
Each method is realized in techniques. By a technique we mean an
individual way in doing something, in gaining a certain goal in
teaching learning process. The method and techniques the teacher
should use in teaching children of the primary school is the direct
method, and various techniques which can develop pupils` listening
comprehension and speaking. Pupils are given various exercises,
connected with the situational use of words and sentence patterns.
Teaching grammar patterns.
We’ll examine "Teaching Grammatical Patterns" by Robert Lado
(Chapter 10 "From Sentences to Patterns")
Robert Lado thinks that even children who have never studied the
rules grammar make use of the grammar of the language. This is seen
in the mistakes they make. When a child says, He goed, he is
forming a "regular" preterite on the pattern: showed, weighed,
served: "goed. "His error reveals the fact that he has been
applying the pattern even though he is not able to describe it.
Patterns and Sentences
A grammatical pattern is an arrangement of parts having linguistic
significance beyond the sum of its parts. The parts of a pattern
are expressed by words or classes of words so that different
sentences often express the same pattern. All the sentences of a
language arc cast in its patterns. John telephoned, The boy
studied.
We understood are different sentences expressing the same statement
pattern in English.
A pattern is not a sentence, however. Sentences express patterns.
Each sentence illustrates a pattern. To memorize a sentence does
not imply that a pattern has been memorized. There can be countless
sentences, each unique, yet all constructed on the same pattern.
Patterns and Grammar
Children learn the grammatical patterns of their language before
they study grammar in school. When a child saysgoed instead of went
or knowed instead of knew, he is applying the regular preterite
pattern on the analogy, open: opened = go: goed
Patterns arc learned in childhood. Adults no longer have to learn
new patterns; they learn new words that are used in old patterns.
That the old patterns are alive is shown by putting unknown words
and phrases into them. And what is the role of the native language
in learning the patterns of a foreign language? Native Language
Factor
The most important factor determining ease and difficulty in
learning the patterns of a foreign language is their similarity to
or difference from the patterns of the native language. When the
pattern in the target language is parallel to one in the native
language, the student merely learns new words which he puts into
what amounts to an extended use of his native pattern. Since his
word learning capacity is not lost, he makes rapid progress. When,
however, the native language pattern does not parallel that of the
target language, the student tends to revert to his native language
patterns through habit. Grading the Patterns
There is no single grading scale for teaching the patterns of a
foreign language. Any systematic cumulative progression, taking
into account the structures that are difficult, would be
satisfactory from a linguistic point of view. Pattern-practice
Approach The mimicry-memorization exercise tends to give the same
amounts of practice to easy as well as difficult problems. It also
concentrates unduly on the memorization of specific sentences, and
not enough on the manipulation of the patterns of sentences in a
variety of content situations. For those patterns that arc
functionally parallel to the native language, very little work
needs to be done, and very little or no explanation is necessary.
On the other hand, for those patterns that are not parallel in the
two languages, more specific understanding of the grammatical
structure points at issue is neededwhile the sentences are learned
and not before or after. And more practice with the pattern is
necessary before it is learned, that is, used without attention to
its structure. Basic sentences
The memorization of sample sentences that contain the grammatical
problems to he mastered is common to both pattern practice and
mimicry-memorization. For this practice there is ample
justification in linguistics and in psychology. The utterances have
to become readily available if the student is to use them in the
rapid sequence of conversation. Teaching the patterns
A sentence can be learned as a single unstructured unit like a
word, but this is only the beginning. The student must acquire the
habit of constructing sentences in the patterns of the target
language. For this he must be able to put words almost
automatically into a pattern without changing it, or to change it
by making the necessary adjustments.
Teaching a. problem pattern begins with teaching the specific
structure points where a formal change in the pattern is crucial
and where the student is not able to manipulate the required
changes. The steps in teaching problem patterns are (1)attention
pointer, usually a single sentence calling the students' attention
to the point at issue; (2)examples, usually minimally contrastive
examples showing a pair of sentences that differ only on the point
or points being made; (3) repetition by the class and presentation
of additional examples of the same contrast; (4) comments or
generalization elicited inductively from the students and confirmed
by the teacher; (5) practice, with attention on the problem being
taught. These steps an intended to clarify the crucial point of
contrast at the time when sentences are being learned. They should
take only a small portion of the class time—no more than 15 per
cent.
Robert Lado accents that many teachers make the mistake of trying
to explain everything at length while the class listens passively.
Long explanations without active practice arc a waste of time, and
even with practice they are inefficient. Most of the class should
be devoted to practice. The following are brief descriptions of
some of the more effective types of exercises. The more effective
types of exercises according to R. Lado: Listening
It is understood that the student does not invent the target
language. He must listen to good models. Random listening helps,
but selective listening following instructions is more effective.
Listening is assumed to he most effective when it is in preparation
for speaking. Listening can be combined with other activities.
Oral repetitionIn this practice the student repeats the pattern
sentences provided orally by the model. This is the most basic and
important of all exercises. It begins with the presentation of the
very first sentence of the pattern, the basic sentence, and
continues through all other examples of the pattern taught for
speaking.
Oral substitutionOnce the student can speak the basic sentence by
repetition, oral substitution becomes the most useful and powerful
drill available to practice the pattern. It is fast, flexible, and
versatile, and it approximates conversational use of the language.
Several variations are described for the reader: simple
substitution, substitution in variable position, substitution that
forces a change, substitution requiring a change, and multiple
substitution. Transformation Speech practice and etc.
The idea of learning the pattern rather than just sentences is
clearly stated by C. C. Fries. Carles Fries and Robert Lado wrote
what “We offer them [patterns] with confidence in their
extraordinary effectiveness. They represent a new theory of
language learning, the idea that to learn a new language one must
established orally the patterns of the language as subconscious
habits. ”*1 C. C. Fries thinks that one must practice the patterns
of the language until he can use them little or no effort. The
Psychological characteristics of grammar skills.
To develop one’s speech means to acquire essential patterns of
speech, and grammar patterns in particular. Children must use these
items automatically during speech-practice. The automatic use of
grammar items in our speech (oral and written) supposes mastering
some particular skills– the skills of using grammar items to
express one’s own thoughts, in other words to make up your
sentences. We must get so-called reproductive or active grammar
skills. A skill is treated as an automatic part of awareness.
Automatization of the action is the main feature of a skill.
The nature of automatization is characterized by that psychological
structure of the action which adopts to the conditions of
performing the action owing frequent experience. The action becomes
more frequent, correct and accurate and the number of the
operations is shortened while forming the skill the character of
awareness of the action is changing, i. e. fullness of
understanding is paid to the conditions and quality of performing
to the control over it and regulation.
To form some skills is necessary to know that the process of the
forming skills has some steps: Only some definite elements of the
action are automatic.
The automatization occurs under more difficult conditions, when the
child can’t concentrate his attention on one element of the action.
The whole structure of the action is improved and the
automatization of its separate components is completed. What
features do the productive grammar skills have?
During our speech the reproductive grammar skills are formed
together with lexics and intonation, they must express the speakers
intentions. The actions in the structural setting of the lexics
must be learnt. The characteristic feature of the reproductive
grammar skills is their flexibility. It doesn`t depend on the level
of automatization, i. e. on perfection of skill here mean the
original action: both the structure of sentence, and forms of the
words are reproduced by the speaker using different lexical
material. If the child reproduces sentences and different words,
which have been learnt by him as “a ready-made thing” he can say
that there is no grammar skill. Learning the ready-made forms, word
combinations and sentences occurs in the same way as learning
lexics.
The grammar skill is based on the general conclusion. The grammar
action can and must occur only in the definite lexical limits, on
the definite lexical material. If the pupil can make up his
sentence frequently, accurately and correctly from the grammatical
point of view, he has got the grammar skill. Teaching grammar at
school using the theoretical knowledge brought some critical and
led to confusion. All the grammatical rules were considered to be
evil and there were some steps to avoid using them at school. But
when we learn grammatical items in models we use substitution and
such a type of training gets rid of grammar or “neutralize” it. By
he way, teaching the skills to make up sentences by analogy is a
step on the way of forming grammar skills. It isn’t the lexical
approach to grammar and it isn’t neutralization of grammar, but
using basic sentences in order to use exercises by analogy and to
reduce number of grammar rules when forming the reproductive
grammar skills.
To form the reproductive grammar skills we must follow such steps:
Selection the model of sentence. Selection the form of the word and
образование словоформ.
Selection the auxiliary words-preposition, articles, and etc. and
their combination with principle words.
The main difficulty of the reproductive (active) grammar skills is
to correspond the purposes of the statement, communicative approach
(a questionиan answer and so on), words, meanings, expressed by the
grammatical patterns. In that case we use basic sentences, in order
to answer the definite situation.
The main factor of the forming of the reproductive grammar skill is
that pupils need to learn the lexic of the language. They need to
learn the meanings of the words and how they are used. We must be
sure that our pupils are aware of the vocabulary they need at their
level and they can use the words in order to form their own
sentence. Each sentence contains a grammar structure. The mastering
the grammar skill lets pupils save time and strength, energy, which
can give opportunity to create. Learning a number of sentences
containing the same grammatical structure and a lot of words
containing the same grammatical form isn’t rational.
But the generalization of the grammar item can relieve the work of
the mental activity and let the teacher speed up the work and the
children realize creative activities.
The process of creation is connected with the mastering of some
speech stereotypes the grammatical substrat is hidden in basic
sentences. Grammar is presented as itself. Such a presentation of
grammar has its advantage: the grammar patterns of the basic
sentences are connected with each other. But this approach gives
pupils the opportunity to realize the grammar item better. The
teaching must be based on grammar explanations and grammar rules.
Grammar rules are to be understood as a special way of expressing
communicative activity. The reproductive grammar skills suppose to
master the grammar actions which are necessary for expressing
thoughts in oral and written forms. The automatic perception of the
text supposes the reader to identify the grammar form according to
the formal features 9 words, word combinations, sentences) which
must be combined with the definite meaning. One must learn the
rules in order to identify different grammatical forms. Pupils
should get to know their features, the ways of expressing them in
the language. We teach children to read and aud by means of
grammar. It reveals the relation between words in the sentence.
Grammar is of great important when one teaches reading and
auding.
The forming of the perceptive grammar and reproductive skills is
quite different. The steps of the work is mastering the
reproductive skills differ from the steps in mastering the
perceptive skills. To master the reproductive grammar skills one
should study the basic sentences or models. To master the
perceptive grammar skills one should identify and analyze the
grammar item. Though training is of great importance to realize the
grammar item. Introducing new language structure.
We will consider ways in which children can be introduced to new
language structure. The importance of language awareness
When we present grammar through structural patterns we tend to give
students tidy pieces of language to work with We introduce grammar,
which can easily be explained and presented. There are many
different ways of doing this, which do not (only) involve the
transmission of grammar rules.
It is certainly possible to teach aspects of grammar - indeed that
is what language teachers have been doing for centuries - but
language is a difficult business and it is often used very
inventively by its speakers, In other words real language use is
often very untidy and cannot be automatically reduced to simple
grammar patterns. Students need to be aware of this, just as they
need to be aware of all language possibilities. Such awareness does
not mean that they have to be taught each variation and linguistic
twist, however. It just means that they have to be aware of
language and how it is used. That is why reading and listening are
so important, and that is why discovery activities are so valuable
since by asking students to discover ways in which language is used
we help to raise their awareness about the creative use of grammar
amongst other things.
As teachers we should be prepared to use a variety of techniques to
help our students learn and acquire grammar. Sometimes this
involves teaching grammar rules; sometimes it means allowing
students to discover the rules for themselves. What do we
introduce?
Our job at this stage of the lesson is to present the pupils with
clear information about the language they are learning. We must
also show them what the language means and how it is used; we must
also show them what the grammatical form of the new language is,
and how it is said and/or written. What we are suggesting here is
that students need to get an idea of how he new language is used by
native speakers and the best way of doing this s to present
language incontext.
The context for introducing new language should have a number of
characteristics It should show what the new language means and how
it is used, for example. That is why many useful contexts have the
new languagebeing used in a written text or dialogue. A good
context should be interesting for the children. This doesn't mean
that all the subject matter we use for presentation should be
wildly funny or inventive all of the time. But the pupils should at
least want tosee or hear the information. Lastly, a good context
will provide the background for a lot of language use so that
students can use the information not only for the repetition of
model sentences but also for making their own sentences.
Often the textbook will have all the characteristics mentioned here
and the teacher can confidently rely on the material for the
presentation. But the textbook is not always so appropriate: for a
number of reasons the information in the book may not be right for
our students in such cases we will want to create our own contexts
for language use. Types of context
Contextmeans the situation or body of information, which causes
language to be used. There are a number of different context types,
but for our purposes we will concentrate on three, the students'
world, the outside world and formulated information. The students'
world can be a major source of contexts for language presentation.
There are two kinds of students' world. Clearly we can use
thephysical surroundingsthat the students are in - the classroom,
school or institution. But classrooms and their physical properties
(tables, chairs, windows, etc. ) are limited. Thestudents' livesare
not constrained in the same way, however, and we can use facts
about them, their families, friends and experiences.
The outside world provides us with rich contexts for presentation
For example, there is an almost infinite number ofstories we can
use to present different lenses. We can also create situationswhere
people speak because they are in those situations, or where the
writer describes some special information. This is especially
useful for the practice of functional language, for example.
We can ask students to look at examples of languagewhich show the
new language in operation, though this last category can sometimes
have no context. These three sub-categories, story, situation or
language, can besimulated or real. Most teachers are familiar with
'made-up' stones which arc often useful for classwork: real stories
work well too, of course. In the same way we can create the
simulation of an invitation dialogue, for example. But here again
we could also show students a real invitation dialogue. In general
we can say that real contexts are better simply because they are
real, but they may have complexities of language and
comprehensibility which can be avoided by simulated contexts -
life-like but clearly mode-up to some extent. Formulated
informationrefers to all that information which is presented in the
form of timetables, notes, charts etc. Once again we can use real
charts and timetables, growth statistics, etc. or we can design our
own which will be just right for our students.
There are variations on these different kinds of context, of
course, but we can broadly summarize what we have said so far in
the following way: The presentation of structural form.
One of the teacher's jobs is to show how the new language is formed
- how the grammar works and how it is put together. One way of
doing this is to explain the grammar in detail, using grammatical
terminology and giving a mini-lecture on the subject. This seems
problematical, though, for two reasons; firstly many pupils may
find grammatical concepts difficult, secondly- such explanations
for beginners will be almost impossible.
A more effective - and less frightening - way of presenting form is
to let the students see and/or hear the new language, drawing their
attention in a number of different ways to the grammatical elements
of which it is made. For whilst advanced students may profit from
grammatical explanations to a certain extent, at lower levels we
must usually find simpler and more transparent ways of giving
students grammatical information. A general model for introducing
new language.
The model has five components: lead-in, elicitation, explanation,
accurate reproduction, and immediate creativity. During the
lead-inthe context is introduced and the meaning or use of the new
language is demonstrated. This is the stage at which students may
hear or see some language (including the new language) and during
which students may become aware of certainkey concepts. The key
concepts are those pieces of information about the context that are
vital if students are to understand the context and thus the
meaning and use of the new language.
During the lead-in stage, then, we introduce our context (making
sure that key concepts are understood) and show the new language in
use.
During the elicitationstage the teacher tries to see if the
students can produce the new language. If they can it would clearly
be wasteful and de-motivating for them if a lot of time was spent
practising the language that they already know. At the elicitation
stage - depending on how well (and if) the students can produce the
new language - the teacher can decide which of the stages to go to
next. If the students can't produce the new language at all, for
example, we will move to the explanation stage. If they can, hut
with minor mistakes, we may move to the accurate reproduction stage
to clear up those problems. If they know the new language but need
a bit more controlled practice in producing it we may move directly
to the immediate creativity stage Elicitation is vitally important
for it gives the teacher information upon which to act: it is also
motivating for the students and actively involves their learning
abilities. During the explanationstage the teacher shows how the
new language is formed. It is here that we may give a listening
drill or explain something in the students' own language; we may
demonstrate grammatical form on the blackboard. In other words,
this is where the students learn how the new language is
constructed. During the accurate reproductionstage students are
asked to repeat and practise a certain number of models. The
emphasis here will be on the accuracy of what the students say
rather than meaning or use. Here the teacher makes sure that the
students can form the new language correctly, getting the grammar
right and perfecting their pronunciation as far as is necessary.
Correction.
During the accurate reproduction phase there are two basic
correction stages: showing incorrectness (indicating to the student
that something is wrong) and using correction techniques. (a)
Showing incorrectness
This means that we will indicate to the student that a mistake has
been made. If the student understands this feedback he or she will
be able to correct the mistake and this self-correction will be
helpful to him or her as part of the learning process.
There are a number of techniques for showing incorrectness: 1
Repeating: Here we simply ask the student to repeat what he or she
has just said by using the word 'again'. This, said with a
questioning intonation, will usually indicate that the response was
unsatisfactory (although it could be misunderstood as only
indicating that the teacher has not heard the student's
response).
2 Echoing: We will be even clearer if we repeat what the student
has just said, using a questioning intonation since this will
clearly indicate that we are doubting the accuracy or content of
what is being said.
Sometimes we can echo the complete student response, probably
stressing the pan of the utterance that was incorrect, for example:
She go to school?
Another possibility is to echo the student's response, but only up
to the point where the mistake was made, ftor example: She go
…?
Echoing, in its various forms, is probably the most efficient way
of showing incorrectness.
3 Denial: We can simply tell the student that the response was
unsatisfactory and ask for it to be repeated. This seems somewhat
drier than the techniques so far discussed; it may be a bit more
discouraging.
4 Questioning: We can say 'Is that correct? ' asking any student in
the class to answer our question. This has the advantage of
focusing everybody's mind on the problem, though it may make the
student who made the mistake seem somewhat exposed.
5 Expression: Many teachers indicate that a response was incorrect
by their expression or by some gesture. This is very economical
(and can be quite funny) but can be dangerous if the student thinks
that the expression or gesture is a form of mockery.
In general, showing incorrectness should be handled with tact and
consideration. The process of student self-correction, which it
provokes, is an important and useful part of the learning process.
Showing incorrectness should be seen as a positive act, in other
words, not as a reprimand. Frequently, however, we find that
showing incorrectness is not enough for the correction of a mistake
or an error and the teacher may therefore have to use some
correction techniques. (b) Using correction techniques
If students are unable to correct themselves we can resort to one
of the following techniques.
1 Student corrects student: we can ask if anyone else can give the
correct response. We can ask if anyone can 'help' the student who
has made the mistake. If another student can supply the correct
information it will be good for that student's self-esteem.
However, the student who originally made the mistake may feel
humiliated if this technique is used insensitively.
2 Teacher corrects student(s): Sometimes we may feel that we should
take charge of correction because the students are extremely
mixed-up about what the correct response should be. In that case we
can re-explain the item of language, which is causing the trouble.
This will be especially appropriate when we see that a majority of
the class are having the same problem. After the re-explanation we
can move to choral and individual repetition (if necessary) before
moving on.
The object of using correction techniques, of course, is to give
the student(s) a chance to (know how to) get the new language
right. It is important, therefore, that when we have used one of
the techniques suggested above, we ask the student who originally
made the mistake to give us a correct response. When the children
and teacher are confident that the children can form the new
language correctly they will move toimmediate creativity. Here they
try to use what they have just learned to make sentences of their
own, rather than sentences which the teacher or book has introduced
as models. It is at this stage that both teacher and student can
see if the students have really understood the meaning, use and
form of the new language. If they are able to produce their own
sentences they can feel confident that the presentation was
success.
We can represent the model for introducing new language in diagram
form:
Notice again that if the students perform well during elicitation
the teacher can move straight to immediate creativity. If at that
stage they perform badly the teacher may find it necessary either
to return to a short accurate reproduction stage or. in extreme
cases, to re-explain the new language. The Content of Teaching
Grammar.
Before speaking about the selection of grammar material it is
necessary to consider the concept “grammar”, i. e. , what it meant
by “grammar”. By grammar one can mean adequate comprehension and
correct usage of words in the act of communication, that is,
intuitive knowledge of the grammar of the language. It is a set of
reflexes enabling a person to communicate with his associates. Such
knowledge is acquired by a child in the mother tongue before he
goes to schools.
This “grammar” functions without the individual’s awareness of
technical nomenclature, in other words, he has no idea of the
system of the language, and to use all the word-endings for
singular and plural, for tense, and all the other grammar rules
without special grammar lessons only due to the abundance of auding
and speaking. His young mind grasps the facts and “makes simple
grammar rules” for arranging the words to express carious thoughts
and feelings. This is true because sometimes little children make
mistakes by using a common rule for words to which that rule cannot
be applied. For example, a little English child might be heard to
sayTwo mans comed instead of Two men come, because the child is
using the plural s rule for man to which the rule does not apply,
and the past tense ed rule for comewhich does not obey the ordinary
rule for the past tense formation. A little Russian child can
sayножов instead of ножей using the case-ending ов for ножиto which
it does not apply. Such mistakes are corrected as the child grows
older and learns more of his language.
By “grammar” we also mean the system of the language, the discovery
and description of the nature of language itself. It is not a
natural grammar, but a constructed one. There are several
constructed grammars: traditional, structural, and transformational
grammars. Traditional grammar studies the forms of words
(morphology) and how they are put together in sentences (syntax);
structural grammar studies structures of various levels of the
language (morpheme level) and syntactic level; transformational
grammar studies basic structures and transformation rules.
What we need is simplest and shortest grammar that meets the
requirements of the school syllabus in foreign languages. This
grammar must be simple enough to be grasped and held by any pupil.
We cannot say that this problem has been solved.
Since graduates are expected to acquire language proficiency in
aural comprehension, speaking and reading grammar material should
be selected for the purpose. There exist principles of selecting
grammar material both for teaching speaking knowledge (active
minimum) and for teaching reading knowledge (passive minimum), the
main one is the principle of frequency, i. e. , how frequently this
or that grammar item occurs. For example, the Present Simple
(Indefinite) is frequently used both in conversation and in various
texts. Therefore it should be included in the grammar minimum.
For selecting grammar material for reading the principle of
polysemia, for instance, is of great importance. *1
Pupils should be taught to distinguish such grammar items which
serve to express different meanings. For example, м -ing н о -ed
Past Simple (Indefinite) м -s (es) н о
The selection of grammar material involves choosing the appropriate
king of linguistic description, i. e. , the grammar which
constitutes the best base for developing speech habits. Thus the
school syllabus reflect a traditional approach to determining
grammar material for foreign language teaching, pupils are given
sentences patterns or structures, and through these structures they
assimilate the English language, acquire grammar mechanisms of
speech. The content of grammar teaching is disputable among
teachers and methodologists, and there are various approaches to
the problem, pupils should, whatever the content of the course,
assimilate the ways of fitting words together to form sentences and
be able to easily recognize grammar forms and structures while
hearing and reading, to reproduce phrases and sentences stored up
in their memory and say or write sentences of their own, using
grammar items appropriate to the situation. The Most Common
Difficulties Pupils Howe in Assimilating English Grammar.
The chief difficulty in learning a new language is that of changing
from the grammatical mechanism of the native language to that of
the new language. Indeed, every language has its own way of fitting
words together to form sentences. In English, word order is more
important than in Russian. The word order inTom gave Helen a
roseindicates what was given (a rose), to whom (Helen), and by whom
(Tom). If we change the word order and sayHelen gave tom a rose, we
shall change the meaning of the sentence. In Russian, due to
inflexions, which are very important in this language, we can
sayТом дал Лене розу or Лене дал Том розуwithout changing the
meaning of the sentence, as the inflexion “e” in the wordЛене
indicates the object of the action. The inversion of subject and
finite verb in Are you…indicates the question form. In speaking
English, Russian pupils often violate the word order which results
in bad mistakes in expressing their thoughts. The English tense
system also presents a lot of trouble to Russian-speaking pupils
because of the difference which exists in these languages with
regard to time and tense relations. For example, the pupil cannot
at first understand why we mustsay I have seen him today and I saw
him yesterday. For him the action is completed in both sentences,
and he does not associate it in any way withtoday or yesterday.
The sequence of tenses is another difficult point of English
grammar for Russian speaking pupils because there is no such
phenomenon in their mother tongue. Why should we sayShe said she
was busy when she is busy? The use of modal verbs in various types
of sentences is very difficult for the learner. For example, he
should differentiate the use ofcan and may while in Russian the
verb maycovers them both. Then he should remember which verb must
be used in answers to the questions with modal verbs. For instance,
May I go home? No, you mustn’t. May I take your pen? Yes, you may.
Must I do it? No, you needn’t. The most difficult point of English
grammar is the article because it is completely strange to
Russian-speaking pupils. The use of the articles and other
determiners comes first in the list of the most frequent errors.
Pupils are careless in the use of “ these tiny words” and consider
them unimportant for expressing their thoughts when speaking
English.
English grammar must begin, therefore, with pupils’learning the
meaning of these structural words, and with practice in their
correct use. For example: This is a pen. The pen is red. This is my
pen and that is his pen. Correct selection of grammar teaching
material is the first step towards the elimination of mistakes.
Some General Principles of Grammar Teaching and How to Use
Them.
Teaching grammar should be based upon the following principles:
Conscious approach to the teaching of grammar.
This means that in sentence patterns teaching points are determined
so that pupils can concentrate their attention on some elements of
the pattern to be able to use them as orienting points when
speaking or writing the target language. For example, I can see a
book. I can see many books. The teacher draws pupils’ attention to
the new element in the form of a rule, a very short one. It is
usually done in the mother tongue. For example: Помни, что во
множественном числе к существительному прибавляется окончание–s [s,
z] или –es [IZ]. Or: Помни, что в отрицательных предложениях
ставится вспомогательный глагол “do not” (“does not”)The rule helps
the learner to understand and to assimilate the structural meaning
of the elements. It ensures a conscious approach to learning. This
approach provides favourable conditions for the speedy development
of correct and more flexible language use. However it does not mean
that the teacher should ask pupils to say this or that rule, Rules
do not ensure the mastery of the language. They only help to attain
the practical goal. If a pupil can recognize and employ correctly
the forms that are appropriate, that is sufficient. When the
learner can give ample proof of these abilities we may say that he
has fulfilled the syllabus requirements.
Conscious learning is also ensured when a grammar item is
contrasted with another grammar item which is usually confused. The
contrast is brought out through oppositions. For example: I get up
at 7 o’clock. It’s 7 o’clock. I am getting up. He has come. He came
an hour ago. Give me a book (to read into the train). Give me the
book (you have promised), I like soup (more than any other food). I
like the soup ( you have cooked). Rule for the teacher:
The teacher should realize difficulties the sentence pattern
presents for his pupils. Comparative analysis of the grammar item
in English and in Russian or within the English language may be
helpful. He should think of the shortest and simplest way for
presentation of the new grammar item. The teacher should remember
the more he speaks about the language the less time is left to
practice. The more the teacher explains the less his pupils
understand what he is trying to explain, this leads to the teacher
giving more information than is necessary, which does not help the
pupils in the usage of this particular grammar item, only hinders
them. Practical approach to the assimilation of grammar.
It means that pupils learn those grammar items which they need for
immediate use either in oral or written language. For example, from
the first steps of language learning pupils need the Possessive
Case for objects which belong to different people, namely, Mike’s
textbook, Ann’s mother, the girl’s doll, the boys’ room, etc. The
teacher masters grammar through performing various exercises in
using a given grammar item. Rule for the teacher:
The teacher should teach pupils correct grammar usage and not
grammar knowledge.
Structural approachto the teaching grammar, i. e. grammar items are
introduced and drilled in structures or sentence patterns.
It has been proved and accepted by the majority of teachers and
methodologists that whenever the aim to teach pupils the command of
the language, and speaking in particular, the structural approach
meets the requirements. Pupils are taught to understand English
when spoken to and to speak it from the very beginning. This is
possible provided they have learned sentence patterns and words as
a pattern and they know how to adjust them to them to the
situations they are given. *1
In our country the structural approach to the teaching of grammar
attracted the attention of many teachers. As a result structural
approach to grammar teaching has been adopted by our schools since
it allows the pupil to make up sentences by analogy , to use the
same pattern for various situations. Pupils learn sentence patterns
and how to use them in oral and written language. Rule for the
teacher:
The teacher should furnish pupils with words to change the lexical
(semantic) meaning of the sentence pattern so that pupils will be
able to use it in different situations. He should assimilate the
grammar mechanism involved in sentence pattern and not the sentence
itself. Situational approach to the teaching of grammar.
Pupils learn a grammar item used in situations. For example, the
Possessive Case may be effectively introduced in classroom
situations. The teacher takes or simply touches various things and
saysThis is Nina’s pen; That is Sasha’s exercise-book, and so on.
Rule for the teacher:
The teacher should select the situations for the particular grammar
item he is going to present. He should look through the textbook
and other teaching materials and find those situations which can
ensure comprehension and the usage of the item.
5. Different approachto the teaching active grammar (grammar for
conversation) and passive grammar (grammar for reading).
Grammar items pupils need for conversation are taught by the oral
approach, i. e. , pupils aud them, perform various oral exercises,
finally see them printed, and write sentences using them.
For example, pupils need the Present Progressive for conversation.
They listen to sentences with the verbs in the Present Progressive
spoken by the teacher or the speaker (when a tape recorder is used)
and relate them to the situations suggested. Then pupils use the
verbs in the Present Progressive in various oral sentences in which
the Present Progressive is used. Grammar items necessary for
reading are taught through reading. Rule for the teachers:
If the grammar item the teacher is going to present belongs to
those pupils need for conversation, he should select the oral
approach method for teaching.
If pupils need the grammar item for reading, the teacher should
start with reading and writing sentences in which the grammar item
occurs. While preparing for the lesson at which a new grammar item
should be introduced, the teacher must realize the difficulties
pupils will meet in assimilating this new element of the English
grammar. They may be of three kinds: difficulties in form, meaning,
and usage. The teacher thinks of the ways to overcome these
difficulties: how to convey the meaning of the grammar item either
through situations or with the help of the mother tongue; what rule
should be used; what exercises should be done; their types and
number. Then he thinks of the sequence in which pupils should work
to overcome these difficulties, i. e. , , from observation and
comprehension through conscious imitation to usage in conversation
(communicative exercises). Then the teacher considers the form in
which he presents the grammar item– orally, in writing, or in
reading. And, finally, the teacher plans pupils’activity while they
are learning this grammar item (point): their individual work, mass
work, work in unison, and work in pairs, always bearing in mind
that for assimilation pupils need examples of the sentence pattern
in which this grammar item occurs. Types of Exercises for the
Assimilation of Grammar. The following types of exercises may be
suggested. Recognition exercises which are the easiest type of
exercises for pupils to perform. They observe the grammar item in
structures (sentence patterns) when hearing or reading. Since
pupils only observe the new grammar item the situations should be
natural and communicative. For example:
Listen to the sentences and raise your hands whenever you hear the
verbs in the Past Simple.
Mike lives in Pushkin street. I lived there last year. Ann gets up
at 7 o’clock in the morning. She got up at half past seven
yesterday. , etc.
It is desirable that sentences formed should concern real
situations and facts.
Pupils listen to the teacher and raise their hands when they hear a
verb in the Past Simple. The teacher can see whether each of his
pupils has grasped the sentence.
Read the sentences and choose the correct form of the verb. The
following sentences may be suggested: I (go, went) to school
yesterday. Tom (takes, took) a bus when he goes to school. She
(got, gets, gets) up at 7 o’ clock every day.
Pupils should read the sentences and find the signals for the
correct choice of the form. Since the necessary form is suggested
in each sentence they should only recognize the one they need for a
given context.
Recognition exercises are indispensable as pupils retain the
grammar material through auditory and visual perception. Auditory
and visual memory is at work. Drill exercisesare more completed as
they require reproduction on the part of the pupils. In learning a
foreign language drill exercises are indispensable. The learners
cannot assimilate the material if they only hear and see it. They
must reproduce it both in outer and inner speech. The more often
they say it the better they assimilate the material. Though drill
exercises are those in which pupils have only one difficulty to
overcome, they should also be graded:
(a) Repetitive drill. Pupils pronounce the sentence pattern after
the teacher, in imitation of the teacher, both individually and in
unison. For example: Teacher: They are dancing in the park. Class:
They are dancing in the park. Individuals: They are dancing in the
park.
Or pupils listen to the dialogue and say it after the speaker. -Is
Ann dancing now? -No, she isn’t. -What is she doing? -She is
watching television.
Attention is drawn to the correct pronunciation of the sentence
pattern as a sense unit, as a statement ( sounds, stress, and
melody).
(b) Substitution. Pupils substitute the words or phrases in a
sentence pattern. For example: The children are dancing in the
park. The children are dancing in the garden. The children are
dancing in the street. The children are dancing in the yard. The
children are dancing in the hall. The children are dancing after
classes. The children are dancing at the party.
A pupil substitutes a phrase, the rest may say it in unison. Then
they are invited to replace the worddancing with other words. They
are singing in the park. They are working in the park. They are
walking in the park. They are playing in the park. They are running
in the park. They are talking in the park. They are watering
flowers in the park. They are planting trees in the park. They are
helping the workers in the park.
The use of a particular verb is stimulated with pictures (or a
Russian word). Quick revision is achieved with a small expenditure
of effort. In this way they review many words and phrases. As
pupils have only one difficulty to overcome the work does not take
much time. Or pupils are invited to replace the words in the
dialogue with those given in columns (see the dialogue above). Kate
Your sister This girl They work in pairs.
There is one more advantage in performing this type of
exercises—pupils consolidate the grammar item without thinking
about it. They think of the words, phrases, but not of the form
itself, therefore, involuntary memory is at work.
(c) Completion. Pupils complete the sentences the teacher utters
looking at the pictures he shows. For example: Teacher: Look at the
picture. Mike is ...... .... Pupil: Mike is getting up. Class: Mike
is getting up. Teacher: Mike is ...... .... Pupil: Mike is
dressing. Class: Mike is dressing.
Attention should be given to the use of is in this exercise. The
teacher should pronounce Mike is .... to prevent the typical
mistake of the pupils (Mike dressing). This is essential structural
element of the tense form of the Present Continuous;
Russian-speaking pupils, however, do not feel any necessity to use
it. (d) Answering the teacher's questions. For example: Teacher: Is
Mike getting up? Pupil: Yes, he is. Teacher: Who is getting up?
Pupil: Mike is. Teacher: What is Mike doing? Pupil: He is getting
up.
Drill exercises may be done both orally and in written form. Pupils
perform oral exercises during the lesson and written ones at home.
For example, they ate told to write five or seven sentences on the
model given. During the next lesson the work done at home is
checked orally. In this way pupils have practice in pronunciation
while reading their own examples, and in auding while listening to
their classmates.
Creative exercises(speech exercises). This is the most difficult
type of exercises as it requires creative work on the part of the
learners. These may be:
(a) Making statements either on the picture the teacher shows, or
on objects. For example, the teacher hangs up a picture and asks
his pupils to say or write three or five statements in the Present
Continuous.
(b) Asking questions with a given grammar item. For example, pupils
are invited to ask and answer questions in the Past Indefinite.
(c) Speaking about the situation offered by the teacher. For
example, one pupil gives commands to perform this or that action,
the other comments on the action (actions) his classmate performs.
Pupil 1: Go to the door, Sasha. Pupil 2: Sasha is going to the
door. Pupil 3: Open the door. Pupil 4: Sasha is opening the
door.
(d) Speaking on a suggested topic. For example, a pupil tells the
class what he did yesterday. (e) Making dialogues using the grammar
item covered. (f) Telling the story (read, heard). (g) Translating
into English.
(h) Participating in free conversation in which pupils are to use
the grammar item they have learned. E. g. , pupils have learned
sentence patterns with the impersonal it. (It's cold. It's late.
It's winter).
Teacher: What's the weather like, children? Is it cold today? Do
you like it when it's cold?
Through these questions pupils are stimulated to speak about the
weather and use the grammar item they have learnt.
All the exercises of the creative type are designed for
consolidating grammar material pupils need for hearing and
speaking. All the exercises mentioned above are designed:
(1) to develop pupils' skills in recognizing grammar forms while
auding and reading English texts;
(2) to accumulate correct sentence patterns in the pupils' memory
which they can reproduce whenever they need these patterns for
speaking or writing; (3) to help the pupils to produce sentences of
their own using grammar items necessary for speaking about a
situation or a topic offered, or writing an essay on the text heard
or an annotation on the text read.
Grammar tests. A check on the assimilation of grammar material is
carried out through: (1) auding (if a pupil understands what he
auds, he knows grammar); (2) speaking (if a pupil uses the grammar
item correctly, he has assimilated it);
(3) reading (if a learner understands what he reads, he knows
grammar); (4) tests.
Tests allow the teacher to evaluate pupils' achievement in grammar,
that is, how each of them has mastered forms, meaning, and usage.
Tests in grammar may involve: filling in the blanks; opening the
brackets; transformation (e. g. , make it negative, change into
plural, etc. );
extension (e. g. , / like to read books — I like to raid English
bocks in our library); completion (e. g. , When I came home .... );
making statements on the pictures given; translation.
During my practice I examined the group of children of 9-10 year
old. The children have been studying English for two years (the 3d
form). I used the test to receive some results and to point out the
level of the forming of grammar skills on theme “the degrees of
comparison of adjectives”. The test consisted of 5 tasks. Task 1
The aim: to control the listening comprehension. Listen. Agree or
disagree. The elephant is the biggest animal. the biggest cat is
the tiger. The monkey’s tail is longer than the cat’s. Dogs are
clever than cats. Cats are funnies than monkeys. Task 2 The aim: to
control the reading skill and the level.
The passage from “Why Rabbits have Got Short tails” (p. 211
“English I” I. N. Vereschagina, T. A. Pritykina, Москва;
Просвещение, 1994) Read and translate
Once there lived a Rabbit, His name was Bunny. He was grey and big,
bigger than his brother Bonny. But he had no tail. And he wanted to
have a long tail, longer than that of Mrs. Fox. One day Bunny went
for a walk. He saw Mrs. Fox. “Hello, Mrs. Fox”, he said, “Where are
going? ” “I’m going shopping. ’ “What are you going to buy? ” “I’m
going to buy a tail. ”
“But you’ve got a tail! I think it’s the longest and the most
beautiful tail! ” “Well, but I want a new one, alonger and more
beautiful one than my old tail. ” Task 3 Complete the table.
Positive Comparative Superlative … … The kindest … Slower … Big … …
Popular … … … Better … Dry … … Beautiful … … Task 4 Compare these
funny fellows (picture 1) Nick and Rick make statements on the
given picture:
Weak, strong; thin, fat; short, tall; young, old; good, bad. Task 5
Choose the correct word and copy the sentences. Lions are (clever,
cleverer, the cleverest) than tigers. The (big, bigger, biggest)
animal is the elephant.
The giraffe’s neck is (long, longer, the longest) than the tiger’s.
The (clever, cleverer, cleverest) wild animals are monkeys.
Appendix Introducing new language: examples. (a) Physical
surroundings: prepositions.
The teacher starts by producing some objects. They can be very
ordinary, for example a stapler, a pen, a bag, a pencil, a pencil
case, etc. The teacher elicits the words for these objects from the
students and if they do not know them models the words and leads
choral and/or individual repetition. The teacher gives one of the
objects (a book. for example) to one of the better students and
then says something like “Put the book on the table. ” If the
student docs not understand the teacher helps by pointing and by
gesture. When the student has put the book on the table the teacher
says “Well done” and then chooses another student who is told to
“Put the ruler in the box”, etc. As the students gradually do what
they are asked they are getting wonderful listening practice.
The teacher now asks the students if they can give instructions
thus eliciting the new language. When the students give their
instructions the teacher will decide whether it is necessary to
interrupt and model some or all of the new language or whether to
move straight on to the immediate creativity stage where students
are giving whatever instructions they want (within reason! ). As a
written stage the teacher can write up some instructions on the
board as models. Students can now be asked to write their own
instructions which they give to their classmates who then have to
do what is written there. (b) Likes and dislikes
This presentation will consist of two stages. In the first students
will learn to
say “Do you like ______? ” and in the second they will be presented
with “He/she likes/doesn't like ____”.
The teacher starts the sequence by asking students “Do you like
coffee? ”. With mime and expression he or she will soon convey the
meaning of the question and a student will answer “Yes” or “No”.
The teacher then gets
choral and individual repetition of the answers (“Yes I do/No, I
don't”) if this is necessary. For a very brief period the teacher
asks students questions and they give their answers. Then the
teacher elicits the question (which the students have heard the
teacher using). If necessary the question is explained and the
teacher goes through the accurate reproduction stage, cueing
students to ask and answer different questions. The students then
work in pairs doing the same thing. This is a form of immediate
creativity.
While the students are working in pairs the teacher puts the
following on the blackboard: NAME FISH CAVIAR SPAGHETTI LIVER
BANANAS
The teacher selects a student, for example, Carlos, and puts his
name in the name column. The other students now ask him whether he
likes the items on the chart and the teacher puts a tick (V) if he
does and a cross (X) if he doesn't. The procedure is now repeated
with other students until the chart looks like this: NAME FISH
CAVIAR SPAGHETTI LIVER BANANAS Carlos V V X V X Maria V X V X V
Juan X X V V V Ctl'WI V V V V V
The teacher then asks the students what they can say about Carlos
and fish, hoping to elicit 'Carlos likes fish'. This new
presentation (of the third person singular of the present simple
with 'likes') now proceeds in the normal way using Carlos' likes
and dislikes for the accurate reproduction stage and the other
preferences for immediate creativity.
The teacher can later introduce the question 'Does Carlos like
fish? ', etc. For the introduction of writing the teacher can use
the fill-in idea (see (a) above) or the students can see the
following model:
Carlos likes fish, caviar and liver, but he doesn't like spaghetti
or bananas. They can then be asked to write similar sentences about
one of the other names on the list. This is a simple form of
parallel writing. (c) Using hands and gestures
Teachers can use their hands and various gestures to make
grammatical form clearer.
One of the things we often need to do is to show how a full
grammatical form is contracted in speech.
One way of explaining this to beginning students is to use the
fingers of one hand to represent the different parts of the
sentence, e. g. Figure
As we say the words we point to the fingers of the hand which
represent those words.
Now we can show how “I do not like pears” becomes “ I don’t like
pears” Figure
The use of the fingers has given a graphic description to the
class. We can pretend to hold the word ‘do’ in one hand and ‘not’
in the other. By bringing the hands together we show how ‘don't’ is
formed. (d) Explaining statements In this case the teacher wishes
to explain such model as: She goes to school. Here is a procedure
we can follow:
Stage IThe teacher says the sentence in a normal way with a clear
voice using correct stress and intonation. This may he done two or
three times.
Stage 2 The teacher isolates a particular feature of the model.
Stage 3 The teacher distorts this feature showing how it is
constructed. Stage 4 The teacher returns to the isolated element.
Stage 5 The teacher gives the normal model again. We can represent
this procedure in Figure : Figure
Sometimes, however, the teacher may not have to distort the
isolated feature (where it is only a one syllable word).
Where there is more than one item that needs isolating the teacher
goes through the procedure in Figure. with the first item to be
isolated and then repeats the sequence with the second item.
The following example clearly shows the procedure in action. The
teacher wishes to isolate both the verb form and the
pronunciation
T: Listen … she goes to school … she goes to school … listen …goes
… goes … go … /z/ …go … /z/ … goes … she goes to school … listen …
she goes to school.
The teacher may back up this oral explanation by writing the
following on the blackboard: She goes to school.
The use of a box to highlight the main grammar points helps to
focus the students' attention on that point. (e) Explaining
question forms
When we have to do the same kind of explanation for a question form
we may follow the same procedure as for (a) above. However,
particularly where a question form is taught after the affirmative
version of the same grammar point has already been the subject of
practice, some extra techniques may help the students to understand
the form of the question.
Unlike many languages English uses inversion to signal a question.
Thus if we take an affirmative sentence such as "He is running" we
find that the equivalent question form has the subject and the
auxiliary in a different order, e. g. 'Is he running? '. Even where
we put a question word (such as‘which’, ’what’, ‘how’, ‘when’, etc.
) at the beginning of the question this inversion is still used.
Students of English frequently find this confusing.
When introducing a question teachers will follow the same procedure
as for (a) above. They will, however, isolate and distort in a
slightly different way, and it will be advisable to use the
blackboard and/or gesture to make the inversion clear.
Suppose we wished to 'explain' the question model 'Is he running? '
We might do it in the following way:
T: Listen .... Is he running? Is he running? .... listen .... he is
running? .... no(teacher shakes head and crosses arms in un
'inversion' gesture} .... Is he running? .... Is he running?
We can write the following on the blackboard at the same time: He
is running Is he running The receptive grammar skills The
reproductive grammar skills Task 1 Task 2 Task 3 Task 4 Task 5 Yura
3 3 2 3 3 Tanya 3 3 3 3 3 Andrey 3 3 2 3 3 Maxim 1 2 1 1 2 Sasha 2
3 1 2 2 Misha Ag 1 2 2 2 2 Yana 3 3 3 2 3 Dima 3 3 3 2 3 Sveta 3 3
3 3 3 Zhenya 3 3 3 3 3 Natasha 3 3 3 2 3 Vova 2 2 2 2 2 Tolya 3 3 3
2 3 Vasya 3 3 2 3 3 Misha Ab 3 3 3 3 3 “1” - more than 3 grammar
mistakes “2” - 1-2 grammar mistakes “3” - 0 grammar mistakes The
results can be commented in levels. 80% - those children who have
the receptive grammar skill
20% - those children who have a part of the receptive grammar
skill
71% - those children who have the reproductive grammar skill
20% - those children who have a part of the reproductive grammar
skill 9% - those children who have no reproductive skill
Conclusion.
In order to understand a language and express oneself correctly one
must assimilate the grammar mechanism of a language. Indeed, one
may know all the words in a sentence and yet fail to understand it,
if one does not see the relationship between the words in the given
sentence. And vice versa, a sentence may contain one, two, and more
unknown words but if one has a good knowledge of the structure of
the language one can easily guess the meanings of these words or at
least find them in a dictionary, No speaking is possible without
the knowledge of grammar, without the forming of a grammar
mechanism. Children need grammar to be able to speak, and write in
the target language. Our aim is to form grammar skills and prevent
children from making grammar mistakes in their speech. The aim of
foreign languages in primary schools is to develop pupils’ skills
in order to understand speech and participate in conversation. The
method and techniques the teacher should use in teaching children
of primary school is the direct method and various techniques which
can develop pupils’ listening comprehension and speaking.
We have examined two kinds of grammar skills: the reproductive and
receptive grammar skills. The reproductive grammar skills give
pupils an opportunity to make up their own sentences in oral and
written forms in other words to communicate and the receptive
grammar skills give them an opportunity to read texts or aud and
understand it.
To master the reproductive grammar skills one should study the
basic sentences or models (grammar is presented as itself in the
basic sentences), to master the receptive grammar skills one should
identify and analyze the grammar item. We teach children to read by
means of grammar. It reveals the relationship between the words in
the given sentence.
We have such a conclusion that the forming of grammar skills
depends on training. Training is of great importance to realize the
grammar item. We must use a lot of training exercises for the
assimilation of grammar. We should provide the motivation of learn
English, encourage children to communicate and remember that the
correction of errors in the early stages of a language course may
foster the following negative aspects:
· children lose confidence when they have fear of making grammar
mistakes. ·Children become reluctant to take risks: they only the
say the information they know they can say.
School practice helped me to realize the importance of training
exercises and the role of the individual approach to teaching the
children of the primary school, Besides, the teacher must have a
clear idea of the grammar of the language, its structure and usage;
everything he teaches must be based on it; he should always be
conscious of introducing or practicing some point of grammar.
Literature. Rogova, G. V. , “Methods of teaching English”; М.
,1970
Harmer, Jeremy, “the practice English language teaching”;
London-New York; Longman, 1991
Синявская, Е. В. и др. , “Вопросы методики обучения иностранным
языком за рубежом. ” /сост. : Е. В. Синявская, М. М. Васильева, С.
В. Калинина/; М. , Просвещение, 1978 Handschin, Charles H. ,
“Methods of teaching modern languages. ”; N. Y. ,World Book Co.
,1926
Bennett, William Arthur. , ”Aspects of Language and language
teaching. ”; London-New York. , Cambridge univ. press, 1968
Lado Robert and Fries Charles C. , “English pattern practices.
Establishing the patterns as habits. ”; The univ. of Michigan
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F. L Billows. , “The Techniques of Language Teaching. ”; Longman,
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Jack C. Richards and Theodore S. Rogers. , “ Approaches and Methods
in Language Teaching. ”; Cambridge univ. press, 1986
Elaine Tarone and George Yule. , “Focus on Language Learner. ”;
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Michael H. Long, Jack C. Richards. , “Methology in Tesol: A book of
Readings. ”; USA. , 1987
Pooley, Robert. , “teaching English grammar. ”; N. Y. , Appleton –
Century – Crofts, 1957 F. Genesee. , “Educating second language
children: the whole child, the whole curriculum, the whole
community. ” Cambridge, 1994 Griffith, S. “Teaching English
Abroad”; Oxford, 1991
Rivers, Wilga M. , “Speaking in many tongues: Essays in
foreign-language teaching. ”; 3rd ed. , Cambridge, 1983
Rixon, Shelagh. , “How to use games in language teaching. ”;
London, The Macmillan press, 1981
Applegate, Maurel. , “Easy in English. An imaginative approach to
the teaching of language arts. ”; N. Y. ,1960
Geoffrey Broughton, Christopher Brumfit, Roger Flavel, “Teaching
English as a foreign language. ”; London, 1981
Swan M. , Smith B. , “Learner English. A teacher’s guide to
interference and other problems. ”; Cambridge, 1987 Brown C. And
Jule. , “Teaching the spoken language. ”; Cambridge, 1983
Формирование грамматических навыков на начальном этапе обучения иностранному языку
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Для автора это очень важно, это стимулирует его на новое творчество!