| anthropogenic factors | natural factors |
| dust storms |
2.2. Match the words with the definitions:
1. smog a) metal container for food and drink
2. waste b) relating to cities
3. urban c) rubbish
4. can d) throwing away wastes
5. garbage e) illness (n)
6. disease f) mixture of smoke and fog
7. flood g) useless materials
8. stock h) amount
9. breath i) take air in your lungs
10. dumping j) large amount of water
2.3. Make statements about environmental problems, using phrases from the table.
Model: Acid rain is created by power stations and car exhausts. It kills life in rivers and lakes.
| Environmental problems | Main causes | Most serious effects |
| water pollution | nuclear power stations | increases the risk of skin cancer |
| noise pollution | refrigerators, air-conditioning | leads to several forms of cancer |
| acid rain | forest fires | creates floods and soil erosion |
| ozone layer damage | car exhausts, power stations | threatens fish stocks |
| radiation | loud music, power tools, transport | results in breathing disorders |
| urban smog | oil, industrial waste, sewage | kills life in rivers and lakes |
| tree loss | solid wastes (used cans, bottles, plastic containers, paper) | damages people’s mental health |
| air pollution | smokes from factories | increases the risk of infection from garbage |
| land pollution | cutting down tropical rainforests | causes respiratory diseases |
2.4. Fill in the gaps with the verbs below. Mind the grammar tense.
Increase / lead / create / threaten / result / damage / cause / reduce
1. High level of pollution …….. wildlife and human health.
2. Using public transport rather than private cars …….. air pollution.
3. Lack of trees and intensive farming …….. a ‘dust bowl’.
4. A pleasant environment …….. positive feelings and emotions.
5. Improved carburetors …….. toxic fumes.
6. Certain European industries …….. the environment.
7. A reduction in water quality …….. to a crisis in fishing.
8. Air pollution …….. from a variety of causes.
2.5. Match the parts of the sentences.
| 1. If the woodlands continue to be damaged | a) but in a concentrated form it can kill animals. |
| 2. Carbon dioxide is a normal component of the atmosphere, | b) and many big cities have taken measures to decrease the level of urban noise. |
| 3. If a species becomes extinct, | c) if the air is polluted. |
| 4. At a level of 80 decibels sound is annoying, | d) and millions of ordinary people understand this too. |
| 5. Pollution may begin as water moves through the air, | e) it will threaten the ecological balance in Europe. |
| 6. Ocean dumping creates water pollution | f) it cannot be brought back. |
| 7. In 1986 the Chernobyl nuclear power plant suffered a fire | g) and destroys marine habitat. |
| 8. We need a cleaner, healthier planet | h) resulting in a major release of radioactive particles. |
2.6. Choose the correct item.
1. Greenpeace is going to release a(n) …….. on water pollution.
a) edition b) issue c) publicity d) report
2. Zoologists work hard to …….. endangered species.
a) protect b) shelter c) cover d) support
3. The tropical …….. of Africa need to be protected from destruction.
a) regions b) states c) places d) sites
4. To improve the …….. of the water, use a water purification tablet.
a) standard b) amount c) quantity d) quality
5. Acid rain has caused a lot of …….. to Europe’s trees.
a) wreck b) ruin c) damage d) disaster
6. Five world leaders are due to attend the …….. meeting in London.
a) tip b) top c) summit d) peak
2.7.Read these sentences (1-10) and then use the words in bold to complete the sentences below (a-j).
1. Exhaust fumes from cars are responsible for much of the air pollution in cities.
2. Many factories still allow pollutants, such as toxic waste, to flow into our rivers.
3. We should put our old newspapers and bottles in recycling bins.
4. Ecology is the relationship between plants, animals, people and their environment.
5. Scientists are concerned about the size of the hole in the ozone layer, as ozone helps stop harmful radiation entering the Earth’s surface.
6. Organizations like Friends of the Earth are often referred to as greenorganizations.
7. People who live in the countryside live in a rural environment.
8. People who live in towns and cities live in an urban environment.
9. Dinosaurs became extinct millions of years ago; there will never be dinosaurs again.
10. Global warming is the theory that the world’s average temperature is increasing.
a) If ….. continues, the polar ice caps will start melting and the sea level will rise.
b) Some aerosol cans give off СFС gases which enter the atmosphere and destroy the …... .
c) If we don’t protect endangered species, they may become …….. .
d) …….. is important because it means that factories have to produce less new plastic, glass and paper.
e) The filter prevents dangerous …... from entering the atmosphere through the chimney.
f) Some children in …….. environments don’t realize that milk comes from cows!
g) Electric cars don’t produce any …….. so they are much cleaner.
h) I’m a very …….. person; I recycle, use public transport, and care about the environment.
i) Until the Industrial Revolution, most Europeans had a very …….., agricultural way of life.
j) The …….. of rainforests changes when trees are cut down.
2.8. Read the 4 short texts and answer the questions:
1. Which text:
● says about the influence of exhaust fumes?
● gives information about radioactive pollution?
● worries about infertile lands?
2. What plants can survive only in clean air?
3. What are special electronic signs designed for?
4. How do you understand the phrase: “to combat a problem”?
A LICHEN POLLUTION TEST
Plants called lichens are sensitive to air pollution, especially the air’s acidity, so you can use their presence or absence to see how clean your air is. Shrubby and leafy lichens only survive in clean air. In the most polluted areas there are none at all. Look for lichens on walls, stones and trees, and use this scale to rate the air quality.
POLLUTION
Pollution is now a major problem in marine ecosystems. Over 80% of this comes from land-based activities, e.g. sewage and industrial waste. Conditions are worst in enclosed areas like the Mediterranean and the North Sea, where levels of pollution are now so high that wildlife and human health are threatened.
Drum containing – dangerous radioactive nuclear waste dumped at sea. Measures are finally being taken to combat this international problem, but it will be a long and difficult job.
TRANSPORT AND POLLUTION
Pollution from the ever-growing volume of vehicle exhaust is making life more and more unpleasant in many of the world’s major cities. Ozone, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and lead and dust particles all endanger the health of the cities’ people and wildlife.
The removal of lead from petrol and the use of devices known as three-way catalytic converters to control exhaust fumes are two ways of lessening the problem.
In Tokyo, Japan, special electronic signs show the levels of noise and air pollution.
SOIL EROSION
Most of the earth’s surface is covered by a layer of soil, ranging from 0,5 cm thick in mountainous regions to 2 m in cultivated areas. We all depend on this thin layer for our food supplies, yet everywhere it is threatened by soil erosion.
Over-grazing, poor irrigation, intensive farming and the destruction of tree cover mean that vital topsoil is left exposed, and much is being blown or washed away. If this continuous, we may not left to grow enough food.
2.9. Fill in the correct word derived from the word in bold.
| One person, the American (1) …….. Thomas Midgely, created what are considered to be two | INVENT |
| of today’s biggest (2) …….. evils – CFCs and leaded petrol. | ENVIRONMENT |
| His inventions show how science can (3) …….. practical | COME |
| problems but how (4) …….. perfect ideas can | APPEAR |
| have (5) …….. consequences. After WW1, Midgely | DISASTER |
| was searching for a chemical (6) …….. to the problem of an irritating knocking sound heard coming from | SOLVE |
| car engines. This saw the (7) …….. of leaded petrol. | DEVELOP |
| Nowadays, most (8) …….. believe that lead causes | SCIENCE |
| (9) …….. pollution and brain damage in young children. | ATMOSPHERE |
| Midgely then turned to the refrigerator industry in an attempt to make (10) …….. to the cooling systems. He developed a substance known as CFC, which as we know, is damaging the earth’s ozone layer. | IMPROVE |
| In 1940, Midgely was paralysed by polio. He invented a pulley system to (11) …….. him to get out of bed. Sadly, in 1944 he strangled himself while using it. | ABLE |
2.10. Fill in the correct word derived from the word in bold.
SAVING THE ENVIRONMENT
| People are becoming (1) …….. worried about | INCREASE |
| the (2) …….. of the environment, | POLLUTE |
| (3) …….. the burning of fossil fuel, which contributes to | PARTICULAR |
| (4) …….. warming. Indeed, if the Earth was to warm by as little as 2°C, many parts of the world | GLOBE |
| would become (5) …….. due to flooding. | INHABITABLE |
| There would also be massive (6) …….. problems as farmers | AGRICULTURE |
| tried to feed the growing (7) …….. in a changing climate. | POPULATE |
| (8) …….. agree that urgent measures have to be taken to prevent a world-wide catastrophe. They have drawn up a list | SCIENCE |
| of (9) …….. which have been issued to | RECOMMEND |
| (10) …….. in the hope that they will bring about | GOVERN |
| the (11) …….. that are urgently needed. | DISCUSS |
2.11. Read the text Recycling Britain and answer the questions after it.
RECYCLING BRITAIN
By 2000, half the recoverable material in Britain’s dustbins will be recycled – that, at least, was the target set by Chris Patten, Secretary of State for the Environment. But he gave no clues as to how we should go about achieving it. While recycling enthusiasts debate the relative merits of different collection systems, it will largely be new technology, and the opening up of new markets, that makes Patten’s target attainable: a recycling scheme is successful only if manufacturers use the recovered materials in new products that people want to buy.
About half, by weight, of the contents of the typical British dustbin is made up of combustible (capable of burning) materials. These materials comprise 33% paper, 7% plastics (a growing proportion), 4% textiles and 8% miscellaneous combustibles.
Of the rest, hard non-combustibles (metals and glass) each make up another 10%, and ‘putrescibles’, such as potato peelings and cabbage stalks, account for 20%, although this proportion is decreasing as people eat more pre-prepared foods. This final fraction is ‘fines’ – nameless dust. This mixture is useless to industry, and in Britain most of it is disposed of in landfill sites – suitable holes, such as worked-out quarries, in which the waste is buried under layers of soil and clay. That still leaves about 40% of the mixture – glass containers, plastics, and some paper and metal containers – as relatively clean when discarded. This clean element is the main target for Britain’s recyclers.
The first question, then, is how best to separate the clean element from the rest. The method of collection is important because manufacturers will not reuse collected material unless it is clean and available in sufficient quantities. A bewildering assortment of different collection schemes operates in the rest of Europe, and pilot schemes are now under way in many British cities including Leeds, Milton Keynes, Sheffield and Cardiff. Sheffield, Cardiff and Dundee are testing out alternatives as part of a government-monitored recycling project initiated last year by Friends of the Earth.
A realistic target for recycling mixed refuse is somewhere between 15 and 25% by weight, according to researchers at the Department of Trade and Industry’s Warren Spring Laboratory. This proportion would include metals and perhaps some glass. Statistics compiled by researchers at the University of East Anglia show that we could almost halve the total weight of domestic waste going to landfill by a combination of ‘collect’ schemes (such as doorstep collections for newspapers), ‘bring’ schemes (such as bottle banks) and plants for extracting metals.
This estimate makes two important assumptions. One is that the government will bring in legislation to encourage the creation of markets for products made from recycled materials, especially glass, paper and plastics. The other is that industry will continue to introduce new technology that will improve both the products and the techniques used to separate recoverable materials from mixed refuse.
► 1. In paragraph 1, the writer suggests that the Secretary of State for the Environment has:
a) created an impossible target.
b) provided a target without a method.
c) given clear details of how to achieve a target.
d) given manufacturers a target to aim for.
2. Correspond the facts with the following numbers in paragraph 2: 33%, 7%, 4%. Which proportion is growing?
3. ‘This mixture is useless to industry’ (paragraph 3). This statement is:
a) true for Britain but not for other countries.
b) a matter of disagreement.
c) the opinion of the author.
d) an established fact.
4. Look at paragraph 4 and
a) find British cities mentioned in it;
b) explain the phrases a pilot project, a recycling project.
5. Look at paragraph 5 and say which words have the opposite meaning to:
a) industrial waste b) part c) probably
6. Look at paragraph 6 and say whether these statements are true (T) or false (F).
a) The government wants to reduce recycling things like paper and plastic.
b) Industry is encouraged to create new technological processes to create new technological processes for recycling.
7. According to the text, recycling is only possible when:
a) there is enough clean material.
b) there is a small amount of clean material.
c) it is monitored by the government.
d) different collection schemes operate.
2.12. The following text will introduce you to the topic of tropical rainforests. The words are given in the order in which they appear in the passage. The definitions are also given. Check that you know what they mean.
wealth– richness
habitat– place where animals and plants normally live
species– a kind of an animal or plant
layer – one thickness of material laid over a surface
merge – join together
birds of prey – birds that kill animals for food
canopy – the leaves and branches of trees, that make a kind of roof in a forest
abundant – plentiful
sparse – rare
shrub – a small bush
herb – a small plant
elusive – illusory
ash – grey powder remaining after burning
vital– very important for life
raw materials – natural substances such as coal, iron, oil, gas
aid– help
TROPICAL RAINFORESTS
Great rainforests stretch around the Equator, covering large parts of Central and South America, Central Africa, South-east Asia and northern Australia. These forests are the most complex ecosystems in the world and contain a wealth of resources. Despite their importance, though, they are being destroyed at an alarming rate.
Rainforests grow in areas where rainfall and temperatures are both high and constant. Over millions of years they have developed into the earth’s richest wildlife habitats. They cover less than 10% of the planet’s land surface, but they contain between 50% and 70% of all plant and animal species. The greatest of all the forests is Amazonia in Brazil.
Layering. All rain forests have a similar structure, with five main layers, each with its own specific plant and animal life. These layers often merge together, or sometimes one or more are absent.
Emergent layer – made up of a few of the tallest trees which rise 10 to 15m above the mass of greenery below. From here, Harpy eagles and other birds of prey watch alertly for the animals on which they feed.
Canopy– 30 to 40m above the ground, and some 10m thick, this is a continuous green roof formed by the interlinking leaves and branches of the tree tops. Most of the forest’s many plants and animals are found here, taking advantage of the abundant sunshine.
Understorey– made up of the tops of smaller trees that receive less light, like palms, and of younger trees struggling to reach upwards. Much sparser that the canopy, it has its own community of plant and animal life.
Shrub layer – consisting of shrubs and small trees, this layer depends on sunlight penetrating the upper layers. If none reaches here, both this and the herb layer will be sparse. When a gap appears in the canopy, sunlight reaches the lower regions, causing the shrub and herb layers to grow rapidly.
Herb layer – ferns and herbs making up a layer of undergrowth. Elusive ground dwellers, like the tapir, live down here, along with many insects.
The forest floor is covered by several centimetres of fallen leaves. Here, organic matter is rapidly recycled by the decomposers, and minerals are transferred directly to shallow plant roots. This process is so efficient that the lower layer of soil has little mineral content and most of the forest’s mineral wealth is stored in the vegetation. When the forest is cleared and burned, the minerals stored in vegetation are turned to ashes. The root systems are destroyed, allowing rain to wash away the ashes and topsoil. The remaining soil soon becomes infertile, turning areas once rich in life into wasteland. It takes centuries for the forest to return, if ever.
The importance of rainforests. Tropical rainforests play a vital role in regulating the world’s climate, through their position in the oxygen, carbon and water cycles. They are the most important source of raw materials for new medicines and area a vital source of new foods (at least 1,650 rainforest plants could be used as vegetables).
People of the forest. The rainforest is home to many native peoples, who live in harmony with its environment. Their knowledge of the forest is very important to us, if we are to understand its workings and resources. But every day these people are being forced from their own lands with no regard to their wishes or basic human rights. Both they and their knowledge are being destroyed, along with the forests in which they live.
Destruction of the rainforests. Almost 50% of the world’s rainforests have already been destroyed, and the destruction continues. The underlying causes of this are the growing populations, poverty and unequal land distribution in countries with rainforests. This is made worse by the rich nations’ demand for timber, and large. Badly-planned aid programmes. A long-term solution will only be found when these underlying causes are properly dealt with.
It’s important! It is estimated that one square kilometre of forest is destroyed every two and a half minutes – over one million acres per week.
2.13. Fill in the gaps with the word(s) from the box. Use the word(s) only once.
| emergent / green / community / to grow / ground / alarming / land / fallen / to wash away |
| 1. an …….. rate | 4. …….. roof | 7. …….. dwellers |
| 2. …….. surface | 5. ……..leaves | 8. …….. the ashes and topsoil |
| 3. …….. layer | 6. …….. rapidly | 9. …….. of plant and animal life |
2.14. Correspond the facts with the following numbers from the text:
10% / 70% / 15 metres / 40 metres / 1,650 / 50% / 1,000,000
2.15. Match the parts of the sentences.
| 1. The rainforest is home for many native peoples, | a) stretch from the forest floor to the canopy. |
| 2. We must find a balance between making good use of the forest resources, | b) an area as big as the whole of Europe excluding Russia. |
| 3. Climbing plants, like lianas, | c) who live in harmony with its environment. |
| 4. Brazil’s Indian population | d) as their roots are very shallow. |
| 5. Many of the largest trees have buttresses for support, | e) like timber, rubber and nuts, and conserving the forests themselves. |
| 6. The Amazon forest in Brazil covers five million square kilometers – | f) has fallen from 5 million to 200,000. |
| 7. Trees absorb the gas carbon dioxide from the air, | g) it will be environmental disaster. |
| 8. If we lose the tropical forests, | h) and give out oxygen into the air. |
2.16. Answer the questions using the information from activity 2.12.
1. Where can we find tropical rainforests?
2. In what areas do they grow?
3. What is the structure of all rain forests?
4. What is the highest layer? What is the lowest?
5. Which layer is the most favourable?
6. What is the result of forest clearance?
7. What is the importance of rainforests?
8. What are the main reasons of the rainforest destruction?
9. What can happen if tropical rainforests disappear?
2.17.The Amazon Rainforest.Fill in the missing prepositions from the box. If you think that two answers are possible, write both.
| along / for / in / of / on / through / to / until / within |
THE AMAZON RAINFOREST
(0)…Until… a hundred years ago, countries (1)…… the equator were covered with rainforests. More than half of all the types of plants and animals (2)…… earth lived there.
The largest rainforest is Amazonia (3)…….. South America. It covers an area (4)…….. about 6.5 million square kilometres. It takes its name from the River Amazon which flows (5)…….. the northern part of Brazil. Thousands (6)…….. different kinds of animals, birds and butterflies live there. But the rainforest has suffered (7)…….. felling and burning. Now long dusty roads lead (8)…….. the forest. What are the reasons (9)…….. the destruction? Trees are burnt or cut down (10)…….. their hardwood. The land is used (11)…….. farms, mines and cattle ranches.
There has already been a lot of damage (12)…….. the plants and animals of the rainforest. If the destruction is not stopped, (13)….... thirty years all the trees will be gone.
2.18. Read the following four texts through and decide where each extract is from:
a) a leaflet from an environmental organization
b) an account of a journey through the rainforest
c) an advertisement for an adventure holiday
d) a scientific discussion of an environmental issue
1) In parts of the forest, the vegetation is so dense that when you look up you can’t even see the sky. The atmosphere is thick and heavy. You sweat all the time and you are constantly troubled by biting insects. The sounds of the rainforest are extraordinary: the songs of many different bird species, the cries of animals in the treetops that you never see. Underfoot, the ground is soft and your feet sink into the carpet of rotting leaves. You tread carefully, keeping an eye out for snakes that wind themselves around branches in your path.
2) The rainforest contain about 50 per cent of all the plants and animals species on earth, and we haven’t even identified most of them yet. The rainforests have already given us life-saving medical drugs and delights like oranges, lemons, bananas and chocolate. No one really knows what else lies waiting to be discovered. Yet, through our irresponsibility and greed, we are putting all such future discoveries at risk. The awful fact is that we are destroying about 50,000 plant and animal species a year through…
3) The rate of deforestation worldwide is difficult to estimate. Recent studies have suggested that around 100,000 square kilometres are probably being lost annually. There are three identifiable consequences of forest loss to the global environment. The first is the contribution that the burning of trees makes to global warming through the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. The second consequence is the loss of species brought about by the destruction of ecosystems.
4) If you’re expecting comfort and luxury, the Amazon is not the place for you. If you can put up with basic accommodation, biting mosquitoes, the sticky heat and frequent exhaustion, you may be the kind of person we’re looking for. What you get in return for all this hardship is the chance to experience the most extraordinary place on earth: where you can see birds with the most exotic plumage imaginable, trees that reach the height of 20-storey buildings, …
► Complete the table with the number of the text /texts:
| The writer’s purpose | to analyse | to entertain | to warn |
| Text | |||
| is written in a very formal style | |||
| has words that express strong feelings | |||
| contains facts intended to shock | |||
| contains descriptive detail | |||
| contains verbs in the passive voice | |||
| addresses the reader directly | |||
| contains the words we and our | |||
| contains specialist vocabulary |
2.19. Read the text The Beauty of Scotland – How Long Will It Last? and decide if the statements after it are true (T) or false (F). Correct them if they are false.